The Rise of Caesar
As Caesar led his troops
across the Rubicon in early January 49 BC, it was clear to all that Rome was
once again facing the nightmare of civil war on its own soil. In the final
years of the Roman Republic, military men who had gained fame and fortune
through imperial conquests would increasingly come to dominate Roman politics.
In the 80s, Rome had experienced a bitter civil war fought between the forces
of Marius and Sulla — two ambitious military
leaders who had turned their troops into personal armies. Within the space of a
generation, Rome would once again see fellow countrymen pitted against one
another — with the forces of Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great locked in a
bitter conflict for control of the Roman world.
When looking for omens of the
Roman Republic’s impending collapse, warnings signs can be clearly seen in its
last generation. Between 88 and 49 BC, Rome had experienced a brutal civil war,
a spell of bloody proscriptions and cruel executions, a spate of mob violence
and growing levels of domestic unrest. However, the most important development
in this period was the rise of Caesar and his ascendancy from a populist
reformer to the most powerful man in the senate.
Up until 60 BC, Julius
Caesar’s career was far from illustrious and there was little to suggest he
would come to dominate Rome. He had been elected Pontifex Maximus — the
head of the state religion — in 63 BC and had more recently spent time serving
abroad in Spain. However, the year 59 BC was to be the turning point of
Caesar’s career — and for the Roman Republic itself.
Within a few short months,
Caesar would find himself at the head of the Roman state, having been elected
consul. But with his year in office, the stage would be set for the decade of
political turmoil that was to follow. And it is through tracing Caesar’s
consulship that we can glimpse the divisions that eventually plunged Rome into
civil war.
Caesar’s return
Far from the wealth and
opulence of Rome, Caesar had spent 61–60 BC as governor of Hispania Ulterior
(modern-day Spain and Portugal) — where he was tasked with leading a campaign
against the pesky natives who opposed Roman rule. Caesar had won a great deal
of respect for his service in Spain, and upon his return to Rome, he looked to
cash this in for an even bigger prize. As Caesar returned to Italy, campaigning
for the consulship of 59 BC was just beginning — and Caesar was a strong
favorite among the electorate. However, his ambition would also bring about
fierce opposition from Rome’s political establishment.
Conservatives in the senate
viewed Caesar unfavorably, seeing him as a populist firebrand who looked to
challenge their own authority. Led by Marcus Porcius Cato, the conservative
faction (known as the Optimates) looked to thwart Caesar’s electoral bid and
kill his campaign before it could even get off the ground.
Caesar’s exploits in Spain had gained him a triumph, which he hoped to use as a springboard for his upcoming bid for the consulship. However, this presented a problem for Caesar: to get his triumph he had to remain an active general, but as an active general he was not allowed to enter the city of Rome — and hence could not run in the elections of that year.
He petitioned for an exemption that would allow him to declare his candidacy in absentia, but the conservatives saw their opportunity and blocked Caesar’s request, leaving him to choose between his election campaign and the chance of a prestigious military triumph. This forced Caesar to take the remarkable step of forfeiting his command — and his triumph — so he could enter Rome and formally announce his candidacy. The Optimates may have done all they could to frustrate Caesar’s ambitions, but for now, he had come out on top — and the scene was set for the fierce election to come.
Caesar against the Optimates
As two consuls were elected each year, Caesar ran for the consulship on a joint ticket with Lucceius. This was a sound election strategy, Lucceius was a moderate senator with little charisma, which acted as a solid counterbalance to Caesar, who had a reputation as an ambitious reformer. The Optimates also forwarded their own candidate for office in Bibulus, who it was hoped would help obstructed Caesar’s policies for the year to come. The charismatic and popular Caesar was the clear front runner — and come election day, it was no surprise that he was elected to the consulship with ease.
The question remained as to who his colleague would be, and in this regard, the Optimates came out on top, with Bibulus finishing ahead of the moderate Lucceius and taking the second spot. Caesar was able to celebrate his electoral success, but he was undoubtedly anticipating a difficult year in office.
It was not only the conservative faction of Roman politics that had noticed Caesar’s sharp rise. Pompey — the most distinguished general in Rome — had also taken an interest in Caesar’s activities, and he looked to utilize Caesar for his own purposes. Pompey had recently returned from campaigning in the eastern provinces and wanted to secure land allotments for his soldiers as a reward for their loyalty, but the Optimates had strongly opposed this measure.
The Optimates had also made an enemy of Crassus — a hugely wealthy senator who held a reputation for shadowy dealings and backhanded politics. Crassus had offered to help tax collectors (publicani) renegotiate their contracts with Rome after they had fallen into debt but again had been thwarted by the Optimates.
Both Pompey and Crassus shared a common goal in their opposition to the Optimates — and they saw Caesar as the perfect tool to further their own power. After Caesar’s election, the three of them forged a political alliance known today as the First Triumvirate and quickly set about breaking the conservatives' hold on political power.
The consulship of Julius Caesar
On 1st January 59 BC, Caesar and Bibulus assumed their roles as consuls for the year — and Caesar immediately set about implementing his populist agenda. His flagship policy was a land reform measure that looked to tackle the growing mass of urban poor languishing in poverty across the city. His proposal involved redistributing land to displaced farmers who, after being replaced in the countryside by cheap slaves from Rome’s growing empire, now found themselves in dire straits after migrating to the city.
Caesar proposed a commission be set up with the goal of purchasing land and providing allotments to some of the urban populace, which included Pompey’s veterans. Unsurprisingly, the Optimates once again looked to oppose the measure and frustrate Caesar’s reforms. The bill had a lot of popular support, but when an additional measure about the distribution of lands in Campania came up for discussion in the Senate, Cato stepped up and filibustered the bill — with chaos ensuing.
The Senate erupted in outrage as Caesar ordered Cato be arrested and removed, with Caesar eventually forced to back down. The measure could only be temporarily halted, and despite taunts of “tyrant” being aimed at Caesar by the Optimates, the political support of Pompey and Crassus would ensure the law was passed.
The Optimates may have been defeated, but their opposition to Caesar was still as vicious as ever. Bibulus and Cato attempted to have his measures overturned — condemning Caesar’s use of mob violence and intimidation. However, Caesar had the support of Rome’s two most powerful senators in Crassus and Pompey, and his supporters flocked to the senate-house to prevent any attempts to repeal his bill.
Fearing for his life, Bibulus would retreat to his home and was rarely seen outside in public for the remainder of his term, leaving Caesar to complete his reforms. Bibulus would attempt to delegitimize Caesar’s legislation throughout the year by warning of worrying omens and using religious festivals to block public votes, which traditionally would mean that any political business was delayed. Through an appeal on religious grounds, Bibulus was likely attempting to cast Caesar’s legislation as illegitimate — with one eye on getting it repealed in the future.
However, Caesar was determined to press ahead and pay back his debts to Pompey and Crassus. His land distribution bill would allow Pompey to allocate land to his veterans, and Caesar ensured that the tax collectors would have their debts reduced — fulfilling his pledge to Crassus. And finally, before his term came to an end, Caesar also looked towards his future legacy.
Before new consuls took office each year, the Senate would decide which provinces each consul was to govern after their term ended. The consuls of 59 BC had been allocated the rather mundane task of managing the care of roads and forests in rural Italy, with the Optimates being behind this measure as a way of blocking Caesar’s ambitions.
Caesar, with the support of Pompey and Crassus, had a bill passed which instead granted him a five-year command in Illyricum, Cisalpine Gaul, and Transalpine Gaul — offering him the chance to gain further prestige through military conquests. With Bibulus confined to his house and the Optimates blocked from opposition by Caesar’s supporters, the road was clear for Caesar to push forward with his legislation and boost his popularity within Rome.
A sign of things to come
For Caesar, his year as consul was a resounding success. He had transformed himself from an ambitious politician to the leader of a powerful political faction, and through an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, he was able to secure his own legacy for years to come. However, the methods he used to gain such power came at a cost — both for Caesar and for the Roman Republic more widely.
Plutarch accused Caesar of having “proposed laws which were becoming, not for a consul, but for a most radical tribune of the people” and for many, the rise of Caesar was a warning sign of the republic’s ill health. Crassus and Pompey, who saw Caesar as a tool to further their own ambitions, had unleashed a political power that would come to dominate Roman politics.
Throughout the next decade, Caesar would use his command in Gaul to secure a loyal coalition of both senators and soldiers, which would then be turned against the republic. As Caesar marched his troops into Italy in 49 BC, his rapid rise to power could be clearly traced back to the events of 59 BC — and Caesar’s year in office would serve as a chilling warning of the disorder that was to follow. If Caesar’s rise was the defining moment of the Late Roman Republic, we must ultimately look towards his consulship to understand Rome’s eventual collapse into civil war.
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