Mob Rule in Ancient Rome

As the chaos unfolded on Capitol Hill last week, it quickly became apparent that we were watching history in the making. An enraged mob, encouraged by the president, storming the home of American democracy and attempting to vent their political frustrations, left many aghast at the scenes unfolding on their television screens. As the dust settles on Capitol Hill, the search for historical precedent is already underway — with the riots marking the first time that the Capitol has been breached since the War of 1812. However, we can look even further into the past to see examples of violent mobs seizing control of political institutions.

The Roman Republic was no stranger to violence and disorder, and the years before its collapse into civil war and autocracy offer a stark warning for modern day democracies. In the last years of the free republic, Rome saw an uptick in domestic conflict and civil strife — with violence often spilling out onto the streets.

Just as last week saw rioters descend on Washington, in 52 BC Rome would also see its seat of government occupied by armed protesters, with the Roman senate building set ablaze and burnt to the ground. For those wishing to understand the events of the past week, the burning of the Roman senate provides a valuable insight into what may happen next.

The rise of Clodius

The deadly violence of 52 can be traced to the rise of one man — Publius Clodius Pulcher. A man of noble birth, Clodius had a chequered past that was plagued by indiscretion and scandal, and his reputation would not fail to raise eyebrows among the conservative aristocrats in the Roman senate. In 58 Clodius was elected tribune, and at once looked to make a name for himself by taking on the conservative faction known as the Optimates.

As tribune Clodius supported several laws that took aim at the establishment, including a measure to prevent public business from being obstructed by the recording of religious omens — which had previously been used as a tool to thwart political opponents. However, the most important law forwarded by Clodius focused on capital punishment, with the ambitious politician supporting a measure to prevent Roman citizens from being put to death without a trial.

This second measure was particularly important, as it was aimed directly at one man in particular — Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero was Rome’s foremost orator and a former consul, and his conservative sentiments made him a perfect target for Clodius. A few years earlier, in December 63, a conspiracy was hatched by a politician named Catiline — who sought to overthrow the government and murder the senate.

The conspiracy was unmasked in time and Cicero, who was consul at the time, had put supporters of Catiline to death for their role in the plot. Whilst the affair had provided a huge boost to Cicero’s own reputation, it offered Clodius ammunition to take down a key member of the establishment.

To get his measure against Cicero passed, Clodius gathered his supporters and encouraged them to take to the streets and intimidate anyone that sided with the former consul. The loyal supporters of Clodius harassed and assaulted those who stood in his way, and Cicero was forced to flee Rome — after which he was officially exiled.

Anarchy on the streets

With Cicero’s exile, Clodius had claimed a massive scalp. After his victory, Clodius even had Cicero’s house on the Palatine Hill destroyed — with a temple dedicated to Liberty built in its place. However, his opponents were not about to go down without a fight.

The response was led by Pompey, one of Rome’s greatest generals and a highly distinguished politician, who took up the cause of Cicero and sought his return to the city. Violence quickly flared up again, and tribunes were wounded in the Forum — with Cicero’s brother Quintus only narrowly surviving. It was at this point that the conservative faction in the senate decided that they had no choice but to fight fire with fire.

The conservatives knew that they needed a counterweight to Clodius — and Titus Annius Milo provided them with the firepower that they needed. Milo was able to call on his own loyal following who could take to the streets and meet the forces of Clodius head on, with Rome descending further into a state of anarchy.

After some back and forth, Pompey was eventually able to call upon the Roman people and push the mob of Clodius out of the Forum. Cicero’s recall was then put to a vote and according to Plutarch “it is said that the people never passed any vote with such unanimity”. Pompey and Milo had gained the upper hand, but the violence was set to continue.

In 53, the next flashpoint came. Milo announced his candidacy for the consulship — which only served to further rile up Clodius and his gang. The election campaigns for that year were marred throughout by violence and disorder, with the situation becoming so volatile that elections had to be postponed.

Things would come to a head on 18 January 52. A stroke of luck meant that the gangs of Milo and Clodius would run into each other outside of the city, and as to be expected, street fights again broke out. This time, however, the clash would end in tragedy for the ringleaders — with Clodius fatally stabbed during the fracas.

The storming of the senate

As news of the incident filtered back to Rome, the supporters of Clodius began to gather in the Forum. Tensions ran high as his body was brought into the city, and the scene quickly turned to chaos. The mob began to rip benches out of the senate house and use them as a funeral pyre for their leader, with the blaze quickly spiraling out of control. As the smoke cleared, it became apparent that the angry mob had burnt the senate house to the ground — leaving Rome’s seat of political power as little more than a pile of ashes.

The assault on the senate house would elicit a strong response from Rome’s political establishment. A senatus consultum ultimum was passed by the senate to allow the perpetrators to be prosecuted — with Pompey tasked with restoring order to the city. As a hugely successful general, Pompey was chosen for his imperium, which would allow him to raise and command troops in the face of this violent insurrection.

In their effort to combat the mobs, the senate would also take the dramatic step of canceling elections for the year and granting Pompey an unprecedented sole consulship. Pompey would spend his year as consul prosecuting those responsible for the violence (including Milo) and restoring order to the city.

When looking upon the relentless drama unfolding in Washington today, the events of 52 serve as a warning for modern day America. Just as many viewed the violent clashes between Clodius and Milo as a sign of the Roman Republic’s deteriorating health, the same can be said of the armed rioters who marched on Capitol Hill last Wednesday. And if comparisons are to be made between the two, it makes grim reading for observers today.

Despite Pompey’s push to restore order, Rome would find itself embroiled in a violent civil war only a few years after the burning of its senate house. Whilst it would be the partisans of Caesar and Pompey — and not Clodius and Milo — who would plunge the Roman Republic into internal conflict, the escalating violence and political divisions seen during the 50s certainly helped to inflame the situation.

Hopefully, the United States of today is not at such a perilous step and the politics of violence can be renounced by its political establishment. Because if the behavior seen on Capitol Hill goes unchecked, Roman history suggests that dark clouds may be on the horizon.