The First Triumvirate – Part One

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In the highly competitive and vicious world of Roman politics, the art of alliance building was a well established tradition. Whether it be the competing factions of Marius and Sulla or the tightly knit alliance of conservatives in the Senate (known as the Optimates) led by Cato, both clientelism and patronage were accepted as part and parcel of political strategy. Despite this, the alliance between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar that formed in 60 BC sent shockwaves across the Roman world – and would eventually bring the Republic to its knees. To understand what made this alliance just so powerful, we must first look to how it came about.

Forming the Triumvirate

By 60 BC, tensions were rising within the world of Roman politics. Pompey, having successfully waged a war in the East against Mithridates, was looking to consolidate his gains and have the veterans that served under him given land as a reward for their services. Whilst Pompey saw this as a fair and reasonable demand, others did not. A group of conservative Senators, led by Cato, pushed back against this measure and sought to argue about every minute detail as a means of blocking the proposal. For Pompey, this would not be his first run-in with Cato. Despite his overwhelming popularity after returning from campaigning in the East (62 BC), Pompey had vied desperately for Cato’s for approval. Wishing to gain acceptance from the political establishment, Pompey looked on in awe at Cato’s ancient family lineage and good standing within the Senatorial class. Pompey went to the extreme of divorcing his own wife and arranging marriages for both himself and his son with Cato’s nieces. However, his efforts were rebuffed and Cato (despite the brides own insistence) refused the request.

Pompey was not the only one who had seen his efforts stifled by the Optimates. Julius Caesar, having returned to Rome from his spell as governor in Spain, found himself as the front runner in the upcoming consular elections. Before formally entering the race, Caesar planned to celebrate his triumph – a prestigious ceremony in which he would see his past achievements celebrated in front of the Roman public. However, Cato again took the opportunity to rain on his parade. As Caesar was required to remain under arms before taking up his triumph, he was legally unable to enter Rome and thus could not technically run for Consul. To Caesar, the solution seemed simple enough – he would run as a candidate in the upcoming elections in absentia, allowing him to both hold his triumph and run for the consulship. The only problem? Cato. Unfortunately for Caesar, his request to run in absentia was blocked and he was forced to choose between his triumph or the Consulship. Caesar would choose the latter - and spark a long running personal feud with the Senate. 

 Crassus, a man known for his vast fortune and extensive list of personal contacts, also clashed with the Optimates. Having fought with the Senate about tax collection contracts in the East, Crassus saw Cato and his faction as a block on his own personal advancement. For all three men, it was ultimately this feeling that they were being blocked by the Senate in their quest to gain personal prestige that would cause them to rally around one another in defiance of Cato - and as a result, the Triumvirate was born.


Above: A 16th century bust depicting Julius Caesar by Andrea Ferrucci

Repaying Old Debts

 The Triumvirate saw Caesar, Pompey and Crassus joined in a political alliance - and it would not take them long to press home their advantage. With Caesar as Consul and both Pompey and Crassus now united, the three looked to strengthen their grip on Rome. Caesar saw to it that Pompey’s veterans got their land, with both Pompey and Crassus putting their personal differences aside to form a united front on the matter. This included literally shipping the veterans themselves into the Forum – thus putting pressure on Cato and Bibulus (Caesar’s fellow Consul) to relent in their opposition. The Optimates saw themselves unable to resist the bill when faced with this three pronged attack. Likewise, Pompey and Crassus secured the provinces of Gaul and Illyricum for Caesar upon the end of his Consulship. This was important for Caesar as a source of future conquest and prestige - allowing him take a military command against troublesome barbarians north of the border. 

As a sign of the tightening bond between the three, the alliance would be sealed with blood. Caesar’s daughter, Julia, was married to Pompey - thus keeping a permanent link between the two men. As Caesar left the Consulship at the end of his term and set off for Gaul, it was apparent that the Triumvirate was here to stay.

This has been part one of a two part series on the First Triumvirate – stay tuned for part two coming soon!

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