The Decline and Fall of the First Triumvirate

This is part two of the First Triumvirate series. To view part one, click here!

As Caesar ended his Consulship and departed for his new role as governor of Gaul, the three triumvirs - Pompey, Crassus and Caesar - appeared unstoppable. Between the wealth and contacts of Crassus, the heroic stature and military legacy of Pompey and the political daring of Caesar, those conservatives within the Senate that once opposed the trio now found themselves at their mercy. However, despite their initial successes, all was not well between the three. It would be the impact of the ensuing split within this political alliance - and the resulting factions that would rise from its ashes - that would eventually lead the Republic into a bloody civil war.

Growing Tensions

It was within Rome itself that the first signs of tension between the three leaders could be seen. By 57 BC, political clashes within the capital had become endemic. Mobs of supporters, led by opposing charismatic leaders, had begun engaging in open warfare through the streets of the capital. Fuelled by violence, intimidation and taunts, the gangs of Milo (a Pompeian) and Clodius (supporting Caesar and Crassus) ran amok through the city – chanting abuse at politicians and attempting to influence decisions within the Senate. On one instance, Milo faced the law courts for his actions –with supporters of both gangs turning out in force. In the courthouse, both Pompey and Cicero turned out to defend Milo, but the situation deteriorated quickly. Violence would again break out between the two sides, and the trial was cancelled. Supporters of Clodius taunted Pompey about his ambitions for a new eastern command, insisting that it be granted to Crassus instead. 

At the time Caesar, who had taken up the governorship of Gaul and begun his military campaign to subdue its barbarian population, could see the danger that domestic politics back in Rome meant for the triumvirate. A series of meetings were called – firstly at Ravenna (between Caesar and Crassus) and then at Lucca (with all three members attending) – to try and save the alliance. The power now held by the triumvirs, alongside the growing irrelevance of the Senate, could be seen clearly at Lucca - with over 200 senators making their way from the capital just to witness the meeting. In the aftermath of Lucca, it appear that the triumvirate had been patched up – at least for now – as Caesar saw his command in Gaul renewed and Crassus was packed off to take up an eastern campaign in Syria. However, it was the actions of Crassus in the east that would provide the decisive blow to the triumvirate.

Pompey the Great

Crassus Heads East

After arriving in Syria as its newest governor (54 BC), Crassus glanced across the Euphrates and saw the sight of ever greater glory and prestige. He was not interested in a quiet spell overseeing an eastern province in peace, but wished to engage in a dangerous and fraught campaign against Rome’s greatest challenger – the Parthians. The Romans long believed that unimaginable wealth lay beyond their eastern border, with Parthia acting as the gatekeeper to the vast regions of India and China. However, Crassus was more concerned with what such a conquest would mean for his prestige. With Caesar pacifying Gaul and Pompey already proving his military ability against Mithridates, Crassus needed his own display of strength. Unfortunately for him, Parthia would prove to be much more than he had bargained for.

The campaign started in 54 BC, with Crassus leading his army across the Euphrates and into Parthian territory. The march was brutal – with the Roman army crossing a desolate, water scarce plain that seemed to stretch on as if it were never ending. Despite his men losing heart, Crassus continued his march in an unrelenting manner, his eyes focused on the prospect of future glory. When the Roman scouts came across fresh tracks, it appeared that Crassus was going to have his chance for battle at last. Exhausted, dehydrated and cut off from any chance of assistance, the Romans Legions formed into battle formation and prepared for combat. To the frustration of Crassus, the Parthian forces carried out a series of feigned retreats - with their archers pelting the Romans with arrows all the while.  As this continued, Crassus became increasingly despondent, seeing his men trapped and goaded by Parthian forces. But worst was yet to come. A skirmish broke out between the two sides, with Publius, the son of Crassus, being killed and decapitated. His head was paraded in front of the Roman lines, as the legionaries looked on in despair.

Crassus, seeing the complete disaster of his expedition and mourning the death of his son, would lead what was left of his forces back to the town of Carrhae. Exhausted and wracked with arrows, the Roman retreat would leave thousands of their comrades dead or dying on the battlefield and at the mercy of the Parthians. Upon reaching Carrhae, the Parthians offered Crassus a parley between the two sides as a means of making peace. Upon meeting with the Parthian delegation, it became clear to Crassus that he had walked right into a trap. The triumvir was struck down and decapitated - and with him died not just one of Rome’s foremost politicians, but also the triumvirate itself. Crassus was dead, and the alliance lay in ruins.

The Final Straw

The three headed beast of the triumvirate was no more, but it was still to be seen as to whether the two remaining heads could keep the alliance intact. However, the question as to whether Caesar and Pompey would continue their mutual relationship was answered before the demise of Crassus. In 54 BC, with Crassus still campaigning in the east, Julia – the daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey – died after having a miscarriage. Julia’s death dealt a critical blow to both Pompey, who had now lost his beloved wife, and Caesar, who was forced to mourn the death of his daughter. The marriage had provided a blood bond between the two figures - and with her death, so too did the triumvirate lose its personal touch. Already deprived a family bond, when news reached Rome of Carrhae, it was clear that the triumvirate was done for. Whilst Rome shuddered amidst the looming threat of Parthia, it also looked on in fear at the now inevitable showdown between Pompey and Caesar. It was this impending clash between the two remaining triumvirs, now unrestrained by the breakup of their alliance, that would lead Rome once again to civil war – and ultimately bring an end to the Republic once and for all.